An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student after successfully completing a course in higher education, usually at a college or university. These institutions usually offer degrees at various levels, usually including undergraduate, master and doctoral degrees, often along with other academic certificates, and professional degrees. The most common undergraduate degree is a bachelor's degree, although in some countries lower qualifications have a degree (eg an associate degree in US or a base level in the UK) whilst at a higher level a higher degree first degree is more commonplace.
Video Academic degree
History
The earliest type of academic degree is a diploma, published in madrasah in the medieval Islamic world since the 8th century. The system of modern academic degrees then evolved and expanded in medieval universities, spreading throughout the world as did institutions.
The emergence of a doctor and master's degree and licensees
The origin of the doctor ("licentia docendi") can be traced back to ij? Zah al-tadr? S wa al-ift? '"(" Licensing to teach and issuing legal opinions ") in the medieval Islamic madrasah education system. Ijazat is equivalent to the Doctor of Laws qualification and developed during the 9th century after the establishment of Madh'hab law school. To earn a doctorate, a student "must study in law school, usually four years for a basic undergraduate program" and at least ten years for a postgraduate program. "The Doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the authenticity of the candidate's thesis," and to test the ability of "students to defend them against all objections, in disputes set up for the purpose" which is a practiced scientific practice throughout the student's career as a graduate law student. " students complete their postgraduate education, they are awarded a doctorate degree which gives them a faqih status (meaning "jurist"), mufti (meaning "professor of legal opinion") and mudarris (which means "teacher"), which is then translated into Latin as the magister , professor and the doctor each.
Doctors (Latin: doceo "I teach") appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach (Latin: licentia docendi) at a medieval university. The roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" refers to the Apostles, patriarchs and other Christian authorities who teach and interpret the Bible. The right to grant licentia docendi was originally reserved for the church that required the applicant to pass the test, to take the oath of allegiance and pay the fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guarantees access - now largely free of charge - of all capable applicants, who, however, are still tested for proficiency by ecclesiastic scholastics. This right remains a struggle between the authority of the church and the university's slow emancipation, but was granted by the Pope to the University of Paris in 1231 where it became a universal license to teach ( licentia ubique docendi). However, while licentia continues to have a higher prestige than the baccalaureus degree, it is ultimately reduced to a medium-to-masters and doctoral step, both of which are now exclusive qualifications for teaching.
At the University, doctoral training is a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional learning term before the new teacher is accepted in the "Master of Arts" guild, seven years, is the same as the apprenticeship term for another job. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time, the doctor was considered a higher qualification than a master's degree.
Today the terms "master", "Doctor" (from Latin - literally meaning "teacher") and "professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in medieval universities they are equivalent terms, their use in the degree of name become a customary problem at the university. (Most universities bestow Master of Arts, although the highest level is often called the Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity depending on the place).
The earliest doctoral degrees (theology - Divinitatis Doctor (DD), law - Legum Doctor (LL.D., then DCL) and medicines - MedicinÃÆ'Â| Doctor (MD, DM)) reflect the historical separation of all higher University studies into three fields. Over time, D.D. gradually became less common outside of theology and is now largely used for honors, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often to achieve a degree. Studies outside of theology, law, and medicine were later called "philosophy", because of the Renaissance conviction that actual knowledge could be derived from empirical observations. The Doctor of Philosophy degree is much later in life and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what used to be called philosophy are now classified as a science and humanities.
The University of Bologna in Italy, considered the oldest university in Europe, was the first institution to award a Doctorate in Civil Law at the end of the 12th century; it also gives the same degree in other subjects, including medicine.
The University of Paris uses the term "master" for its graduates, a practice adopted by British universities in Oxford and Cambridge, as well as ancient Scottish universities in St Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
baccalaureus , a term previously used as a bodyguard (e.g., apprentice) for a knight. Further studies, and especially successful participation in and then moderating disputes will result in a Master of Arts degree, from a Latin master, a "master" (usually a teacher), giving the right to teach this subject. The Master of Arts is eligible to enter study under the "higher faculty" of Law, Medicine or Theology, and obtain a bachelor's degree and then the first master or doctor in this field. Thus the title is only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified teacher - hence the English word "graduate", which is based on the Latin gradus ("step"). Evolution of degree terminology
The naming of degrees eventually becomes associated with the subjects being studied. Scholars in the faculty of art or grammar are known as "masters", but those in theology, medicine, and law are known as "doctors". As a study in art or grammar is a necessary prerequisite for studying in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, a doctor's degree is assumed to be a higher status than a master's degree. This led to a modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its current form as a degree based on research and dissertation is the development of German universities of the 18th and 19th centuries, is a more advanced degree. from the Master of Arts (MA). The practice of using the term physician for PhD was developed at German universities and spread throughout the academic world.
French terminology is closely related to the original meaning of these terms. The baccalaurÃÆ'Â © at (cf. "bachelor") is awarded to French students who have successfully completed their secondary education and admitted students to the university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded licenses , similar to those taught by medieval guilds, and they are eligible to teach in high school or move on to higher-level studies. Spain has the same structure: the term "Bachiller" is used for those who complete secondary or high school education, known as "Bachillerato" . The standard Spanish 5-year university degree is "Licenciado" , (although there are some degree of 3-year association called "diplomaturas" , from where "diplomados" can move to learn related licenciatura The highest level is "Doctor".
Degrees are granted by institutions other than universities
In the past, titles were also directly issued by the authority of the king or by a bishop, rather than an educational institution. This practice has largely gone out. In the United Kingdom, Lambeth Degrees is still given by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The right of the Archbishop of Canterbury to grant degrees comes from the Peter's Pence Act of 1533 which empowers the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by the Pope.
Among educational institutions, St David's College, Lampeter was awarded a limited degree by granting powers by a royal charter in the nineteenth century, though not a university. University College North Staffordshire was also granted a degree in power granting to his foundation in 1949, though not a university (as Keele University) until 1962. After the Reformation Education Act of 1988, many educational institutions other than universities have been awarded the title of conferring powers, including college and college education high from the University of London (many of whom are now effective universities with their own right).
Academic attire
In most countries, obtaining an academic degree entitles the holder to wear a special academic outfit to the awarding agency, identifying the status of the individual wearing it.
Maps Academic degree
The law on granting and using degrees
In many countries, titles may only be granted by an agency authorized to do so by a national or regional government. Often governments will also manage the use of universities in business names. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia and the UK. The use of false degrees by individuals, whether obtained from fake institutions or simply created, is often covered by fraud laws.
Showing degrees obtained
Depending on the culture and degree obtained, the degree may be indicated by a pre-nominal title, post-nominal letter, choice, or not shown at all. In countries affected by the UK, the post-nominal letters are the norm, with only a doctorate degree awarding a degree, while a degree is the norm in many northern European countries.
Depending on the culture and purpose of the list, only the highest level, degree selection, or all degrees may be listed. The awarding agency may also be displayed, and it may be determined if the degree is at an honors degree, especially where an honors degree is a separate qualification from an ordinary bachelor's degree.
For members of the Commonwealth University Association, there is a list of standard abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth University Yearbook, but in practice many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the university. concerned. For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, especially 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for Oxford and Cambridge Universities respectively, although this has been replaced by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in the use of official universities, Oxbridge MA from MA obtained. Other commonly used Latin abbreviations include 'Cantuar' for the Lambeth degree (awarded by Archbishop of Canterbury), 'Dunelm' for Durham University, 'Ebor' for the University of York and 'Exon' for the University of Exeter. The University of Ancient Scotland and the University of London have the same abbreviations in English and Latin. (See Universities in UK § Post-nominal abbreviations for fuller list and discussion abbreviations for UK universities.)
Confusion can happen because universities share a similar name, e.g. The University of York in England and the University of York in Canada, or the University of Newcastle in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention includes a state abbreviation with the name of the university. For example, 'York (Can.)' And 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) Usually used to indicate degrees given by these universities where potential confusion exists, and institutions names are given in this form in the Commonwealth University Yearbook.
Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS shows the Master of Science in the US and the following places of American use, but the Master of Surgery in the UK and most of the Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for the Master of Science is the MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and Master of Arts, BS/BSc and MS/MSc for Bachelor and Master of Science, MD for Doctor of Medicine, and PhD for Doctor of Philosophy.
Online titles
An online degree is an academic degree (usually a bachelor's degree, but sometimes the term includes a high school diploma and non-degree diploma) that can be obtained primarily or entirely based on distance learning through the use of a computer connected to the Internet, rather than attending a lecture in the environment traditional campus. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that allow them to work while in school have led to the proliferation of online colleges providing associate, undergraduate, master, and doctoral degrees.
Degree system by region
Asia
Bangladesh, India and Pakistan
Bangladesh, India and Pakistan largely follow the colonial-era British system for classification of degrees. Art, referring to performing arts and literature, has an appropriate degree: Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'Art' but are presently regarded as a large new stream, the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and the Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural sciences (Biology, Physics, Chemistry etc.) The corresponding degree is the Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) and its master is called the Master of Science (M.Sc.). Another set of Information Technology degrees is given specialty in computer science, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). Engineering degree in India follows two similar patterns, Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.). Both represent an engineering degree. In Pakistan, a technical degree is a Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are the same in the curriculum, duration and pattern in which B.Tech. title holders are considered as technologists in Pakistan. An engineering degree in Bangladesh is a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.Sc. Engineering). Degree in Medicine - Bachelor of Medicine & amp; Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS), Dentistry - Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS), Computer Application Degree - Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA) and Master of Computer Application (MCA).
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka as many other commonwealth countries follow the British system with its own distinction. The degrees are approved by the University Grant Commission.
Africa
Tunisia
Grading in Tunisia is done on a 0-20 scale. The passing score is 10 out of 20 which is 50% of the complete value; 20. This assessment system is used from high school to university level. A PhD thesis is even rated from 20.
To advance on the academic ladder, a person is rated numerically strictly. It is; if you holder of a BA register for your MA program will be accepted according to how high your grades are during your undergraduate year.
Europe
Since the Convention on the Qualification of Qualification on Higher Education in the European Region in 1997 and the announcement of Bologna in 1999, the higher education system in Europe is being harmonized through the Bologna process, based on a three-cycle hierarchy: Undergraduate License - Master - Doctor , with the addition of "short cycle (in the first cycle)" to include sub-bachelor qualifications. The system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in several countries, and combined with other elements such as the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and the use of the Diploma Supplement to make comparisons between qualifications easier.
The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) was officially established in 2010 and as of September 2016 has 50 members. Implementation of various EHEA elements varies. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented national qualification frameworks, and ten have a framework but have not yet certified an overall framework; in 38 countries, ECTS credits are used for all higher education programs; 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements; and only 11 countries have incorporated all major points of the Lisbon Recognition Convention in national law.
From 2008, the EU has developed the European Qualification Framework (EQF). It is an eight-tiered framework designed to allow cross-referencing of various national qualification frameworks. Although not specific to higher education, the top four levels (5-8) correspond to short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of EHEA.
Austria
In Austria, there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees:
- the traditional two-cycle Master/Diploma system followed by Doctorate, and
- a three-cycle system of Bachelor, Master and Doctorate as defined by the Bologna process.
With a few exceptions, a two-cycle system will be removed in 2010. Several naming titles that have been established, however, have been preserved, allowing the university to award "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and temporarily "Magister") for graduate programs Master the new style.
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic applies the Bologna process so there are basically three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (3 years after Master).
There are also voluntary academic titles called "small doctors" (eg, RNDr. For natural sciences, PhDr. For philosophy, JUDR. For law, etc.) Achieved after the rigorous exam. Medical students do not get a bachelor's or master's degree, but they study six years and after a rigorous exam they get a MUDR. (equivalent to MD degree) or MDDr. for dentists or MVDr. for veterinarians. They can also earn a "great doctorate" (Ph.D.) after three years of study.
Undergraduate degree, master's degree and small doctorate in shortcut form (Bc., Mgr., Ing.,...) are listed before the person's name, the Doctorate (Ph.D.) is listed after the name (eg MUDR.JU NovÃÆ'¡ k, Ph.D.). The Czechs are very proud of their academic degrees and degrees because of his negligence.
Denmark
Before adapting to international standards, the lowest level normally studied at universities in Denmark is equivalent to a master's degree ( anggradgrad ). Officially, a bachelor's degree is always earned after a 3-year university study.
Various medium-term (2-4 years) professional degrees have been adjusted so that they now have a status as a professional degree with varying degrees of profession, and opposing their academic bachelor degree are considered "applied" degrees. A professional undergraduate degree is 180 or 210 or 240 ECTS-points.
Academic degrees available at the university are:
- bachelor i field of study (bachelor degree = 180 ECTS-points)
- cand. Latin abbreviations of field of study (master's degree = 120 ECTS-points, except Medicine, ie 180 ECTS-points, and Veterinary Medicine, the 150 ECTS-points)
- ph.d. (PhD Degree = usually 180 ECTS-points)
- dr. Latin abbreviation field of study (higher doctoral degree = usually after at least 5 years of individual and original research) Finnish
Finnish
Historically, Finland's higher education system came from the German system. The higher education system currently consists of two types of higher education institutions, universities and polytechnics, many of which call themselves the University of Applied Sciences (UAS) With the exception of several fields such as Medicine and Dentistry, the Finnish system of Higher Education pursuant to the Bologna process. The university provides a bachelor's degree (candidates/candidate), a Master's degree (masters degree) and a doctorate degree ( lisensiaatin tutkinto/licentiat examen and > tohtorin tutkinto/doktorexamen ). In most areas, the doctoral degree system is two levels, the License level is an independent academic degree but completing a Doctorate degree does not require the completion of a License degree. The Polytechnics (Universities of Applied Sciences) have the right to grant bachelor and master degrees, different degrees from titles used for university degrees.
In general, students who are accepted undergraduate study at the university have the right to continue study at the master's level. At the polytechnic, the right to proceed to master level studies should be applied separately, and there are also requirements for work experience. The majority of master degree holders have graduated from university.
The degrees given by universities and polytechnics are equivalent to law, but the content and orientation of studies are different. Master's degrees obtained at the polytechnic give the same academic right to continue study at the Doctorate level as a master's degree earned at the university.
French
The French national education system makes the distinction between the diplômeme national ("national title") and diplô''me universitaire ("university degree"). The first, which is considered to be of higher status, is controlled by the state and issued by the university on behalf of the responsible ministry; the latter being controlled and administered by the university itself. In addition, private providers can be recognized by the state and then, after five years of recognition, having their degrees validated by the state, the validation must be updated every six years. Historically, a research-oriented academic degree and vocational education system is only awarded a diploma. Since the implementation of the Bologna Process in France, things will go towards simplification: schools continue to provide their own diplomas, but State recognition and degree awarding are much more diverse than ever. Diploma programs such as the University of Technology Diploma (DDI) and the Technologist Certificate ( brevet de technician supÃÆ' Â © rieur ; BTS) are now recognized as Qualification "cycles short "value of 120 ECTS credits, allowing the development of this into an academic qualification. Nonetheless, there are diplomas in France without title recognition, e.g. special diplomas designed by various institutions without recognition from the Ministry of Education, such as mastÃÆ'¨re spÃÆ'Â © cialisÃÆ' Â © or Sciences Po Bachelor .
The recognized degree falls within three levels, following the European Higher Education Area Qualification Framework. These are licenses (first cycle), master (second cycle) and doctorat (third cycle). All degree licenses are 3 years (180 ECTS credits) in length and all master's degrees are 2 years (120 ECTS credits) in length. There is also a 5 year (300 ECTS credit) degree engineer, which is a master's degree. In addition to a doctorate, which is always a research degree, DiplÃÆ''me d'Etat de docteur en mÃÆ' Â © dicine and DiplÃÆ''me d'Etat de docteur vÃÆ' Â © tÃÆ' Â © rinaire is also considered third qualifying cycle.
German
Traditionally in Germany, students graduate after four to six years either with a Master's degree in Social Sciences, Humanities, Linguistics and Arts or with a Diploma degree in Natural Sciences, Economics, Business Administration, Political Science, Sociology, Theology, and Engineering. The titles were the first and at the same time not the highest doctoral/doctoral degrees in many disciplines prior to the gradual replacement by the Anglo-Saxon-inspired master's degree and other scholars under the Bologna process. The Masters and Diplom are awarded by the university, both of which require a final thesis, are deemed to be equivalent to a master's degree, although Diplom are awarded by a Fachhochschule (universities of applied sciences) are at the undergraduate level.
Specific type of inspection is Staatsexamen (Country Check). This is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, dentists, teachers, lawyers (lawyers), judges, public prosecutors, patent lawyers and pharmacists must pass to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at the university for three to six years, depending on the field, before they take the first Staatsexamen. Although this is usually at the master's level, some programs (eg lower and lower level Teaching), which have a standard study period of three years, are set to the undergraduate level. After the first Staatsexamen, teachers and lawyers went through a form of pupillage, Vorbereitungsdienst , for two years, before they could take the second Staatsexamen, which tested their practical abilities in their work. In some institutions, pharmacists and lawyers can choose whether to get their first Staatsexamen degree or master's degree (or formerly Diplom ).
Since 1999, the traditional title has been replaced by a bachelor's degree and a master's degree as part of the Bologna process. The main reason for this change is to make international degrees comparable, and to introduce degrees to the German system that takes less time to complete (German students typically take five or more years to get Masters or Diplom ). Some universities were initially resistant to this change, regarded as a shift from a noble tradition to the pure interests of globalization. However, the university must meet the new standards by the end of 2007. Registration to the Diplomacy and the Masters program is no longer possible. However, programs leading to Staatsexamen usually do not transition to Bologna degrees.
Doctors issued by various titles, depending on the faculty: for example, Doctor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Sciences); Doctor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doctor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doctor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), just a few names. Many doctorates and honorary doctorates are often registered and even used in address form in German-speaking countries. A Diplom, Masters, Master or Staatsexamen student may proceed to a doctorate. Qualified undergraduate graduates can also apply directly to a PhD program after a procedure to determine their talent managed by a recognized university. Doctoral degrees (eg, Dr. rer Nat., Dr. phil. And others) are the highest academic degrees in Germany and are generally research degrees. Degrees Dr. med. for doctors should be viewed differently; medical students usually write their doctoral tests right after they complete the study, without prior scientific research, such as students in other disciplines writing Diplomacy, Master's or Master's Thesis. Higher doctors, such as D.Sc. degree in the UK, not in the German system.
However, sometimes mistakenly regarded as a degree, Habilitation is a higher academic qualification in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland which enables further teaching and research support after earning a doctorate. This is obtained by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift ) or presenting a portfolio of first author publications in advanced topics. The precise requirements to satisfy a Habilitation depend on each university. The "habil.", Because it is abbreviated to state that habilitation has been given after the doctor, it is traditionally a conventional qualification to serve at least as Privatdozent (eg "PD Dr. habil.") (Senior Lecturer) in professorship academic. Some German universities no longer require Habilitation, although preferences may still be given to applicants who have this mandate, for academic posts in more traditional areas.
ireland
Ireland operates under the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school leaves a qualification achieved by a student called the Leaving Certificate. This is considered Level 4-5 on the framework. This qualification is the traditional route of entry into third level education. There are also Level 5 qualifications in certain vocational subjects (eg Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations) provided by the Board of Education and Advanced Training (FETAC). Advanced Certificate at level 6 is also provided by FETAC.
The Council for Higher Education and Training (HETAC) awards provides the following awards: Certificates higher at Level 6; A regular undergraduate degree at Level 7; A degree in honors degree or a high diploma at Level 8; Master's degree or postgraduate diploma at Level 9; A doctoral degree or a doctorate is higher at level 10. This is completed at a technology or university institute.
Italy
In Italy, access to university is possible after obtaining a Diploma in MaturitÃÆ' at age 19, after 5 years of studying in a particular high school focused on a particular subject (eg liceo classico Focus on classical, including philosophy, ancient Greek and Latin; lieo scientifico focuses on scientific subjects such as Mathematics, Chemistry and Physics but also includes philosophy, ancient Latin and Italian literature;
After getting a diploma a person can enter university and enroll in any curriculum (eg physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, even though most universities have pre-acceptance tests.
In 2011, Italy introduced a qualification framework, known as Quadro dei Titoli Italiani (QTI), tied to three cycles of the Bologna Process. These are tied together in a new three-tiered qualification system that is introduced as part of the Bologna process and the older, pre-Bologna qualification, and includes qualifications from university institutions and higher education institutions for arts, music and dance (AFAM institutions). In addition to an academic degree, many professional qualifications are associated with QTI at different levels.
The first level, tied to the first cycle of the Bologna Process, includes the laurea (college degree) at the university, and the Diploma accreditation at primo livello in the AFAM institution. The old qualifications mapped to this level are the Diploma universitario and Diplomas in the dirette fini speciali (SDAFS) scheme from the university, and Diploma in Conservatorio i> , Diploma in Istituto Musicale Pareggiato , Diploma dell'Accademia in Belle Arti , Diploma dell'Istituto Superiore delle Industrie Artistiche (ISIA) , > Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Danza and Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica from AFAM institution. The laurea was acquired after three years of study (180 ECTS credits), and awarded an academic degree of dottore ; Older university qualifications at this level take two to three years, with a three-year course that gives degrees of dottore.
The second level, tied to the second cycle of the Bologna Process, includes Laurea magistrale and laurea specialistica at the university institution and Diploma accademico di secondo livello at AFAM. Old Diplomas in laurea are mapped to this level. The Laurea magistrale and laurea specialistica were obtained after two years of further study (120 ECTS credits), and awarded an academic degree of dottore magistrale. The Diploma in Laurea takes four to six years but is accessed directly from the school, with a one-year reduction for those with a diploma, and is also awarded a degree from dottore magistrale .
The third level, tied to the third cycle of the Bologna Process, includes Dottorato di ricerca at the university institution and Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca at the AFAM institute. The old Dottorato in ricerca and The diploma in specializzazione is tied at this level. The Dottorato di ricerca, under the new and old system, took at least three years after laurea magistralie/specialistica and awarded the academic title Dottore at Ricerca (Dott. Ric.) and PhD. The old diploma in specializzazione takes two to six years and provides an academic degree of Specialist .
Universities in Italy offer a number of other qualifications including Master universitario di primo livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 2nd cycle qualifications) and Master universitario at secondo livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 3rd cycle qualification), following from laurea and laurea magistrale/specialistica respectively. This does not give access to PhD. The Diploma in specializzazione , offered in certain professions, takes two to six years and delivers the title of specialista . The Diploma in perfezionamento is a university certificate, aimed at professional training or in a particular field of study, which usually takes one year; it is not allocated at the framework level.
The AFAM Institution may offer a Diploma in perfezionamento o Master and Diploma accademico di specializzazione . This is one year and two qualifying years each and can be offered on the second cycle or third cycle level, differentiated by adding (I) or (II) after the qualifying name. The High School for Mediator Languages ​​offers Diploma in mediatore linguistico , a first cycle of three years (180 ECTS credits), which gives access to laurea specialistica . Specialization Institutes/Schools in Psychoterapy offers the Diploma in specialtyizzazione in psicoterapia, the third cycle qualification takes at least four years and requires laurea magistrale/specialistica either in Psychology or Medicine and Surgery, together with professional registration.
Dutch
In the Netherlands, the structure of academic study was changed significantly in 1982 when the "Tweefasenstructuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Wim Deetman. With this two-phase structure, an attempt was made to standardize all the different studies and arrange them into an identical schedule. The added effect is that students will be hard persuaded to produce results within the stipulated time period, or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two-phase structure has been adapted to the bachelor-master structure as a result of the Bologna process.
Reception
In order for Dutch students to gain access to university education, students must complete a six-year pre-university secondary education called " voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs " (vwo). There are other possible routes, but only if the applicant's final level is proportional to the two levels is access to university education is granted. For some research, a final degree or a particular discipline is required, for example, graduating without physics, biology, and chemistry will make it impossible to study medicine. Persons aged 21 years or older who do not have the required admission certificate may choose an entrance exam as they are accepted into the higher education curriculum. In this test, they must prove the disciplinary command that is deemed necessary to pursue such a study. After September 1, 2002, they will be accepted into the undergraduate curriculum, not into the Master's curriculum.
For some research in the Netherlands, limited access prescribed by the government is enforced (though under a political review for removal, February 2011). This is the limit on the number of applicants for a particular study, so try to control the number of final graduates. The most famous studies for their numerical clausus are medicine and dentistry. Each year a combination of the highest pre-university pass scores and some additional conditions determines who can start a numerus clausus study and who can not.
Almost all Dutch universities are government-supported universities, with only a few private universities available (ie one in business, and all others in theology). Leiden University is the oldest, founded in 1575.
Pre-Bologna phase
Before the introduction of the bachelor structure, almost all academic studies in the Netherlands have the same length of four years and have two phases:
- "propedeutische phase" (1-2 years): Upon completion of this phase a student can take a two-year study, which gives the equivalent of an Anglo-Saxon BSc (Bachelor of Science) , BA (Bachelor of Arts) or LLB (Bachelor of Laws).
- "doctorale phase" (3-4 years): Completing the first phase successfully gives students access to the second phase. Again, failure to complete within a given time will result in termination. This phase is concluded with "doctor exam" (doctoral examination). This is not the same as the type of doctoral exam that will provide students with any type of PhD degree. However, a successful solution did give Dutch students "drs." "doctorandus", ir. ("ingenieur" - engineer) or "mr." ("Meester in de rechten" - jurist). Currently these Dutch titles have been largely replaced by the Anglo Saxon MSc (Master of Science), MA (Master of Arts), and LLM (Master of Laws), depending on the subject area.
For medical students, the title "doctorandus" is not equivalent to the Anglo Saxon European graduate research degree in medicine MD (Medical Doctor). In addition to doctorandus degrees, Curius curriculum graduates can also assume a degree of art (physician). Doctors in a medical degree are awarded after four years (nominal time) of the Curius curriculum, while the title doctor is awarded after six years (nominal time) of the curriculum. The Dutch doctor's degree is the same as the MSc degree in accordance with the Bologna process, and can be compared with MBBS in the English degree system, and MD North America, but not the UK MD degree, which is a research degree. One-on-one equality or exchange of medical titles Dutch and MD are often recommended. However, officially the title of MD is unknown, or the law for use in the Netherlands. The correct notation for a Dutch physician who completed his medical studies, but did not continue his doctoral studies (PhD-like) was "drs." (eg drs. jansen, art ) and not "dr." in medicine, as it is often used incorrectly. However, as in England, the doctor who holds this title is referred to as a 'Doctor' with courtesy. In the Netherlands, there are informal degrees for doctors, but not physicians (dr.), Unless they also get the degree by completing the PhD curriculum. In addition, the title "doctorandus" does not give medical students the right to treat patients; for this required a minimum of two years of additional study (apprenticeship). Upon obtaining the Medical Board registration, the Dutch physician must work two to six additional years in the area of ​​expertise to become a registered medical specialist. Dutch surgeons are generally only given access to the surgeon's training and positions after obtaining a doctorate (PhD) successfully. In recent years, the six year old Curius curriculum (nominal time) (which offers doctorandus and doctorate degrees) has been replaced with three years (nominal time) Bachelor of Curius followed by three years (nominal time) of Master Curius. Those who have started their old Curius curriculum before that still have to finish it as a six year study (nominal time).
A doctorandus in law uses the title " meester " (master, abbreviated as mr. Jansen ) rather than drs., And some studies such as engineering and agriculture give the title " ingenieur "(engineer, recorded as ir Jansen ) instead of drs. These titles are equivalent to LL.M (title mr.) And to the MSc (title ir.), And if it gets before 1 September 2002 from a recognized Dutch university, it can be given as M (of the Master) behind a person's name, using a typical Dutch shortcut before someone's name. From 1 September 2002, the Dutch university offers a special BSc, BA or LLB study followed by a MSc, MA or LLM study, thus integrating into and joining the international scientific community, offering courses, other classes, seminars or complete curriculum in English , not Dutch. According to their field of study, MSc graduates can use ir. or drs. before their name, MA graduates can use drs. before their LLM names and graduates can use mr. before their name, but only if they receive the degree from a recognized Dutch university.
Not unusual, the Dutch "drs." abbreviations can cause a lot of confusion in other countries, because it is considered as a person who has a PhD in various disciplines. In the Netherlands, the MPhil title is not legally recognized.
After successfully getting "drs.", "Ir.", Or "mr." degree, a student has the opportunity to take a promotional course (informally called a PhD) to finally get a doctorate, and then the title "doctor". Structured promotional studies ideally suited to a predetermined time schedule of 4 to 6 years, in which the student must be mentored by at least one professor. Promotional studies must be concluded with at least a scientific thesis, which must be maintained for "meeting colleagues", in practice the Faculty Board with visiting professors from other faculties and/or universities is added. The more common, and in some even compulsory disciplines, is that students write and submit scientific publications for peer-reviewed journals, which ultimately must be accepted for publication. The number of publications is often disputed and varies between different disciplines. However, in all disciplines students are required to produce and publish a dissertation or thesis in book form.
Undergraduate/master structures
All Dutch academic education programs are currently offered in Anglo-Saxon bachelor/master structures. It takes three years to earn a bachelor's degree and a year or two to get a master's degree. There are three official academic graduate degrees (BA, BSc, and LLB) and three official master's degrees (MA, MSc, and LLM). This academic degree is protected by the Dutch government.
An academic degree
After obtaining a doctorate, Dutch doctors can bear the title of dr. (lower case), or the letter D following their name, but not both simultaneously. There is no special notation of the discipline in which the doctor was obtained.
Stacking of titles as seen in countries such as Germany (Prof Dr Dr. Dr. Gruber) is very rare in the Netherlands and is not culturally well received. Those with multiple degrees may use dr.mult. before their name, but this is rarely seen in practice. Honoris causes doctors to use dr.h.c. before their name. Combining the various Dutch titles, especially in different disciplines, is permissible but (eg Mr. Dr Jansen, Dr. Jansen, Dr. Ir. Jansen, Mr. Drs. Jansen, Mr. Ir. Jansen). The use of combinations ir. ing. often occurs, showing one holding a bachelor's degree in HBO engineering, vocational (or professional) along with an academic engineering degree. What is not allowed is, after getting a doctorate, using dr. drs. Jansen; dr. Jansen should be used instead.
The combination of a Dutch title with an international degree is not allowed, except for some limited international professional titles. Thus, one must choose one of the classic Dutch titles, or use the shortcuts provided by law following a person's name (since September 1, 2002 it is the opposite: those holding the Dutch title as MSc, LLM or MA can optionally use style shortcuts long before their name). Therefore, the formal use of Anglo-Saxon PhD follows the name of an illegitimate person, as it is not a Dutch title. However, its use is usually used for the clarity of international readers, such as English-language publications. The law gives the option to use shortcut D following someone's name, not dr. before someone's name.
" Doctor " (dr.) May continue to teach at the university as "universitair docent" (UD - assistant professor). With time, experience, and/or achievement, this can evolve into a position as a "university hoofddocent" (UHD - associate professor). Officially, UHD is still working under the supervision of "hoogleraar", department head and generally a professor. However, this is not given; it is also possible that a department is led by a "regular" physician, based on knowledge, achievement, and expertise. The position of "hoogleraar" is the highest scientific position at the university, and is equivalent to a "full" US professor. A Dutch professor's degree, recorded as prof. Jansen or Jansen professor , connected to one's work. This means that, if the professor leaves the university, he also loses the privilege of using a professorship degree. Retired professors are exceptions, and may continue to record titles in front of their names, or use the title of professor emeritus (em. People who switch to non-university jobs lose their professorship, and are only allowed to use "dr." abbreviation.
Unlike some other European countries such as Germany, Dutch academic degrees are rarely used outside of academia, have no value in everyday life, and are usually not listed in official documentation (eg passports, driving licenses, communications (government)). However, the Dutch academic degree is legally protected and can only be used by graduates of a Dutch higher education institution. Illegal use is considered a minor offense and is subject to prosecution. Therefore, foreign title holders need special permission before they can use a recognized Dutch degree, but they are free to use their own foreign titles (not translated). In practice, the Public Department does not adjudicate the illegal use of a protected title (in the Netherlands applying the principle of opportunity, so some crimes are known not to be prosecuted).
Norwegian
Prior to 1980, there were approximately 50 different degrees and corresponding education programs in the Norwegian higher education system. The degree has a title that includes the Latin term by gender candidate/candidata . The second part of the title usually consists of a Latin word appropriate to the profession or training. For example, Cand.Mag. (Candidatus Magisterii) takes 4 to 5 years, Cand.Real. (Candidatus Realium) requires 6 years of study and a scientific thesis in a set of specific disciplines (realia). Over the years this has been gradually replaced with more and more internationally comparable programs and corresponding titles. For example, the title Cand. Saint. replaced Cand. Real. in the period 1985 to 2003. These titles have all retired in 2003 and supported the international system.
The reform of higher education in Norway, Kvalitetsreformen ( "Quality Reform" ), was adopted in the Norwegian Parliament, Storting, in 2001 and implemented during 2003/2004 academic year. It introduces the standard period of learning and master's degrees and bachelor's (baccalaureus) .
This system distinguishes between a free master's degree and a master's degree in technology. The latter corresponds to the title of sivilingeniÃÆ'¸r (not to be confused with a degree in civil engineering, which is only one of many degrees related to the title of sivilingeniÃÆ'¸r , which is still used for new graduates who can choose to also use the old title). All the pre-2001 doctoral degrees were replaced with the title of "Doctoral Philosophy Degree", written philosophiÃÆ'Â| doctor (instead of the traditional physician philosophiÃÆ'Â| ). The title of dr. philos. is a much higher degree than a PhD, and is reserved for those who qualify for the degree without participating in an organized doctoral degree program.
Polish
In Poland the system is similar to that of Germany.
- licensed title - given by the university; equivalent to a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science (depending on the academic department); given after at least 3 years of study.
- in? ynier ( di ?. ) title - the degree of engineer provided by the engineering university; given after at least 3.5 to 4 years of study.
- magister ( mgr ) or magister in? ynier ( mgr in ?. ) - equivalent to a Master of Arts degree or Master of Science, awarded after 5-6 years of study, or 1.5-2 years of additional study by holders of a bachelor's degree with a classification of Honors Degree.
- docs ( dr ) degree - equivalent to Doctor of Philosophy.
- doctor habilitowany ( Dr Hab. ) - The Habilitation Degree of Poland, requiring approval from the external ministerial body.
- professor ( prof. ) the highest titles, officially given by the President of Poland.
Russia, Ukraine and other former USSR republics
Since 1992, Russian higher education has introduced a multilevel system, allowing higher education institutions to give and publish Bachelor of Science and Master of Science Degrees.
In Russia, Ukraine and other former USSR degrees are awarded after completing higher education. There are several levels of education to choose between the 2nd and 3rd year usually in the 3rd year of study.
- Bachelor's Degree - usually takes 4 years of college. (the minimum level to be admitted to Higher Education)
- A specialist degree is awarded after 5 years of college. (4 1)
- Master's degree (Master's Degree) is awarded after 6 years of college. (4 2)
(But a Specialist degree may appear equivalent to a Master degree on the grounds of equal amount of time of education). Typically a Specialist or Master degree combines a bachelor's degree in it, but only a high degree is expressed in the final diploma. Specialist and Master's degrees require final exams and written work on the practical application of a learned skill or research thesis (typically 70-100 pages) and roughly equivalent to a Master's degree.
The first level of academic is called "Candidate nauk" (which can be translated verbatim as "Candidate of Science"). This degree requires extensive research effort, taking some classes, publications in peer-reviewed academic journals (no less than 5 publications in Ukraine or 3 publications in Russia), taking 3 or more exams (one or more in their specialty, one outside country of language and one in the history and philosophy of science) and wrote and defended a profound thesis (80-200 pages) called "dissertation".
Finally, there is "Doktor Nauk" (which can be translated verbatim as the title "Doctor of Sciences") in Russia and some academic environments of the USSR. This degree is awarded for contributions in a particular field (formally - that sets new directions or new fields in science). This requires the discovery of a new phenomenon, or the development of a new theory, or an important development of a new direction, etc. Nothing is equivalent to a "science" degree in this US academic system. This is roughly equivalent to Habilitation in Germany, France, Austria, and several other European countries.
In countries with a two-tiered doctoral degree system, the Levels of Nauk Candidates should be considered for recognition at the first doctoral degree level. In countries with only one doctorate, the Level of Candidate Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this degree.
According to the Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in other countries In countries with a two-tiered doctoral degree system, the Level of Nauk Doctorate should be considered for admission at the second doctoral degree level. In countries where there is only one doctorate, the level of Nauk Doctorate should be considered for recognition at this degree level.
According to UNESCO International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, par.262 for the purpose of international education statistics
- DPhil to Nauk/Philosophy Candidate ,
- D. Tell the Nauk Candidate in Literature ,
- D.Sc to Natural Science Candidate Candidate ,
- LL.D to Candidate of Legal Nauk Candidate .
Spanish
Spain's higher education legal framework includes: Official and accredited education, and non-formal education.
1.1 Official and accredited education.
In Spain, the accreditation of official university courses is regulated by law and monitored by government agencies responsible for verifying their quality and suitability for official approval and accreditation.
The official professional studies program leads to a qualification degree ( TÃÆ'tulos ) with full academic and professional effects, and degrees awarded in accordance with the latest system of higher education are:
1. Bachelor's Degree ( Grado ) - 240 ECTS Credits in 4 years.
2. Master Degree ( Master Universitario ) - 60 to 120 ECTS Credits in 1-2 years.
3. PhD doctor ( Doctorado ) - in 3-4 years.
Accredited undergraduate degrees and master's degree qualifications will always be described as " Grado " and " Master Universitario ". This qualification is in accordance with the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) framework. Accredited and accredited university approved university courses should apply this framework by law to achieve and maintain accreditation in Spain.
1.2 Non-formal education.
Not all EHEA-compliant courses in Spain are officially approved and/or accredited by government agencies. Some universities offer exclusive courses as an alternative to accredited courses for various reasons: attending the sustainable education market for individual self-development and also providing higher education to individuals who fail to obtain a bachelor's degree qualification. The main reason for offering this alternative study, though, is the heavy bureaucratic process that must be completed in order to receive approval of a particular title, especially when referring to new studies or studies on matters that are inconsistent with official studies. For historical reasons, the academic system is heavily controlled by the State, and private universities are still perceived as a threat to the State system.
These programs fall into the category of "Not officially approved and accredited" or "Estudios no oficiales" and they have no academic or professional effect. This means that they do not entitle the carrier to claim to have certain academic or professional qualifications, to the extent of being noticed by the Spanish authorities. However, there may be a private agreement to recognize the title.
Universities offering non-legally binding study programs to clearly distinguish between officially and unofficially approved qualifications when naming their non-official qualification offer. An unaccredited master's title will be described as " Master " itself, without the term " Universitario ".
Certain study programs that are unofficial and accredited can earn a good reputation. However, both the Professional Association, Government Agencies, Justice Bodies, and Universities - other than the study program providers - are obliged to recognize non-authorized qualifications in any way.
2. Accreditation System
The University teaches accreditation courses awarded through ANECA, quality assurance and government-dependent accreditation for the Spanish Higher Education System and ensures that data stored in the RUCT, the national registry for universities and qualifications, is correct and up to date. All courses must be accredited by ANECA prior to inclusion in the RUCT. The RUCT records all officially approved Universities and their bachelor's degrees, Master's and PhD degrees, and each and every one of the approved and accredited courses and universities are assigned a certain Codes Number ( CÃÆ'³digo ) by the RUCT. The same study program can get different codes as it runs through various stages of formal approval by local government and central government.
Prospective students should check the RUCT Codes provided to their interest courses at every stage of their inquiry regarding a degree in Spanish.
ANECA makes recommendations on procedures, staffing levels, quality of teaching, resources available to students, and continuity or loss of accreditation and the ANECA Registry records all events in the life of approved and accredited university courses or universities. The ANECA Registry Find facility is probably the simplest and safest way to verify the status of all approved and accredited courses in Spain.
It is also possible to track qualifications using a search facility offered by several autonomous institutions offered by accrediting agencies. These institutions work within the framework of ANECA, and generally show more detailed information on courses available in each region (ie: Catalonia, Madrid, etc.)
3. Qualification Framework for Higher Education.
The qualification framework for higher education MECES is a framework of reference adopted in Spain to set the degree level.
Not all universities offer the exact same degree, even if they have similar academic and professional effects. Each university may submit a proposal for a course that is deemed to meet professional and academic demands. The proposal will consist of a report linking the study program under consideration and the qualifications submitted for grant. This report will be assessed by ANECA and sent to Consejo de Universidades Espaà ± a olas. If Consejo agrees with the ANECA agreement, it will be included in the RUCT and ANECA lists. 4. Spanish qualification and professional effects.
All bachelor and master degrees accredited by ANECA enjoy full academic and professional effects in accordance with new and previous laws. Legal pr
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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