Benjamin Harrison (20 August 1833 - 13 March 1901) was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 23rd President of the United States from 1889 to 1893. He was the grandson of the ninth president, William Henry Harrison, the only grandfather's grandson duo who once held the office. He is also a great-granddaughter of Benjamin Harrison V, a founding father. Before boarding the presidency, Harrison established himself as a leading local lawyer, Presbyterian church leader, and politician in Indianapolis, Indiana. During the American Civil War he served in the Union Army as a colonel, and was confirmed by the US Senate as a brigadier general of volunteers in 1865. Harrison failed to run for Indiana governor in 1876. Indiana's General Assembly elected Harrison for a six-year term in the US Senate , where he served from 1881 to 1887.
A Republican, Harrison was elected president in 1888, defeating Democratic presidential candidate Grover Cleveland. Harrison's administrative signs include unprecedented economic laws, including the McKinley Rates, which impose a historic protective trading rate, and the Sherman Antitrust Act. Harrison also facilitated the creation of a national forest reserve through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891. During his reign, six western states were accepted in the Union. In addition, Harrison substantially strengthened and modernized the US Navy and pursued an active foreign policy, but its proposal to obtain federal education funding and voting for African Americans was unsuccessful.
Because most of the surplus revenue from tariffs, federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his tenure. The issue of spending partly led to Republican defeats in the mid-term elections of 1890. Cleveland defeated Harrison to be re-elected in 1892, due to the growing unpopularity of high tariffs and high federal spending. Harrison returns to his personal life and legal practice in Indianapolis. In 1899 Harrison represented the Venezuelan Republic in their British Guyan border dispute against the British Empire. Harrison went to Paris court as part of the case and after a short stay back to Indianapolis. He died at his home in Indianapolis in 1901 due to influenza complications. Although many praise Harrison's commitment to voting rights, African historians and historians, generally consider his government below average, and place it at the bottom among US presidents. Historians, however, have not questioned Harrison's commitment to personal and official integrity.
Video Benjamin Harrison
Family and education
The father of Harrison is the Harrison family of Virginia, whose ancestral immigrant Benjamin Harrison arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1630. Benjamin, the future president, was born on August 20, 1833, in North Bend, Ohio, the second from Elizabeth Ramsey (Irwin ) and eight children of John Scott Harrison. Benjamin is also the grandson of US President William Henry Harrison, first governor of the Indiana Territory, and great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison V, a Virginia planter who signed the Declaration of Independence and succeeded Thomas Jefferson as governor of Virginia.
Harrison was seven years old when his grandfather was elected as US president, but he did not attend the inauguration. Although Harrison's family is distinguished, his parents are not rich. John Scott Harrison, a two-month US Congressman from Ohio, spends most of his farming income on the education of his children. Despite the simple family resources, Harrison's childhood is fun, mostly spent outdoors fishing or hunting.
Benjamin Harrison's early education took place in a wooden cabin near his home, but his parents then arranged a teacher to help him study in college. Fourteen-year-old Harrison and his elder brother Irwin enrolled at Farmer's College near Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1847. He studied on campus for two years and when there met his future wife, Caroline "Carrie" Lavinia Scott, daughter of John Witherspoon Scott, professor of school science who is also a Presbyterian minister.
In 1850, Harrison moved to Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, and graduated in 1852. He joined the fraternity of Phi Delta Theta, which he used as a network for much of his life. He is also a member of Delta Chi, a legal fraternity that allows double membership. Classmates included John Alexander Anderson, who became six members of the US Congress, and vice president of Whitelaw Reid Harrison in 1892. In Miami, Harrison was heavily influenced by the history and professor of political economy Robert Hamilton Bishop. Harrison also joins the Presbyterian church on campus and, like his mother, becomes Presbyterian for life.
Maps Benjamin Harrison
Marriage and early career
After graduating from college in 1852, Harrison studied law with Judge Bellamy Storer of Cincinnati, but before he finished his studies, he returned to Oxford, Ohio, to marry Caroline Scott on October 20, 1853. Caroline's father, a Presbyterian priest, performed the ceremony. The Harrison family had two children, Russell Benjamin Harrison (August 12, 1854 - December 13, 1936), and Mary "Mamie" Scott Harrison (April 3, 1858 - October 28, 1930).
Harrison and his wife, Caroline, returned to live at The Point, his father's ranch in southwest Ohio, while he completed his legal studies. Harrison was accepted in the Ohio bar in early 1854, the same year he sold the property he inherited after the death of a $ 800 aunt and used the money to move with Caroline to Indianapolis, Indiana. Harrison began practicing law at John H. Ray's office in 1854 and became a barrier to federal courts in Indianapolis, where he was paid $ 2.50 per day. He also serves as Commissioner for the US Claims Court. Harrison became a founding member and first president of the University Club, a private male club in Indianapolis, and Phi Delta Theta Alumni Club. Harrison and his wife became members and took up leadership positions at the First Presbyterian Church in Indianapolis.
Raised in a Whig household, Harrison initially liked the party's politics, but joined the Republican Party shortly after its formation in 1856 and campaigned on behalf of the Republican presidential candidate, John C. FrÃÆ'Â © mont. In 1857 Harrison was elected as a Indianapolis city lawyer, a position that pays an annual salary of $ 400.
In 1858, Harrison entered into a legal partnership with William Wallace to form the Wallace and Harrison law offices. Two years later, in 1860, Harrison managed to run as a Republican candidate for an Indiana Supreme Court reporter. Harrison is an active supporter of the Republican platform and serves as secretary of the Republican State Committee. After Wallace, his legal partner, was elected county officer in 1860, Harrison founded a new company with William Fishback named Fishback and Harrison. The new partners worked together until Harrison entered the Union Army after the start of the American Civil War.
Civil War
In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln issued a call for more recruits to the Union Army; Harrison wanted to register, but worried about how to support his young family. When visiting Governor Oliver Morton, Harrison found him depressed because of the shortage of people who answered the last call. Harrison told the governor, "If I can serve anything, I will go".
Morton asks Harrison if he can help recruit the regiment, though he will not ask him to serve. Harrison recruited all of northern Indiana to upgrade the regiment. Morton offered him an order, but Harrison refused, because he had no military experience. He was originally commissioned as captain and company commander on July 22, 1862. Governor Morton commissioned Harrison as a colonel on August 7, 1862, and the newly formed 70th Indiana was deployed to the Federal Service on 12 August 1862. Once mastered, the regiment left Indiana to join Union Army in Louisville, Kentucky.
During the first two years, the 70th Indiana did a reconnaissance job and guarded railroads in Kentucky and Tennessee. In 1864, Harrison and his regiment joined the Atlanta Campaign William T. Sherman and moved to the frontline. On January 2, 1864, Harrison was promoted to lead the 1st Brigade 1st Division of the XX Corps. He ordered the brigades in Resaca, Cassville, New Hope Church, Lost Mountain, Kennesaw, Marietta, Peachtree Creek, and Atlanta. When Sherman's main troops started March to the Sea, the Harrison brigade moved to Etowah District and participated in the Battle of Nashville.
On January 23, 1865, President Lincoln nominated Harrison to the brevet level of the volunteer brigadier general, to rank the date, and the Senate confirmed his candidacy on 14 February 1865. He rose in the Grand Review in Washington, DC before collecting out on June 8, 1865.
Postwar career
Indiana Politics
While serving in the Union Army in October 1864, Harrison was once again elected as an Indiana Supreme Court reporter, although he did not seek that position, and served as a Court reporter for four more years. The position was incomparable and not politically strong, but it provided Harrison with a steady income for his job of preparing and issuing court opinions, which he sold into the legal profession. Harrison also continued his legal practice in Indianapolis. He became a skilled orator and was known as "'one of the state's leading lawyers.'
In 1868 President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Harrison to represent the federal government in a civil suit filed by Lambdin P. Milligan, whose controversial wartime penalty for treason in 1864 led to a case of the US Supreme Court known as Ex Parte Milligan . This civil case was referred to the US Circuit Court for Indiana in Indianapolis, where it evolved into Milligan v. Hovey . Although the jury gave Milligan a favorable verdict and he had requested hundreds of thousands of dollars in damages, state and federal laws limited the amount that the federal government had to give Milligan up to five dollars plus court fees.
With his growing reputation, the local Republican urged Harrison to run for Congress. He initially restricted his political activities to speak on behalf of other Republican candidates, a task he received high praise from his colleagues. In 1872, Harrison campaigned for a Republican nomination for governor of Indiana. Former governor Oliver Morton likes his opponent, Thomas M. Browne, and Harrison loses his bid for the state office. He returned to his legal practice and, despite Panic of 1873, he was quite financially successful to build a new home in Indianapolis in 1874. He continued to make a speech on behalf of Republican candidates and policies.
In 1876, when a scandal forced a genuine Republican candidate, Godlove Stein Orth, to quit the governor's race, Harrison accepted a Republican invitation to take his place on the ticket. Harrison focused his campaign on economic policy and favored deflating the national currency. He was eventually defeated in plurality by James D. Williams, lost by 5,084 votes out of a total of 434,457 players, but Harrison was able to build on his new lead in state politics. When Great Railroad Strike in 1877 reached Indianapolis, he gathered citizen militias to show support to owners and management, and helped mediate agreements between workers and management and to prevent strikes from widening.
When US Senator Morton died in 1878, Republicans nominated Harrison to run for the seat, but the party failed to win a majority in the state legislature, then elected as senator; the majority of Democrats chose Daniel W. Voorhees instead. In 1879, President Hayes appointed Harrison to the Mississippi River Commission, which worked to develop internal improvements in the river. As a delegate to the Republican National Convention of 1880 the following year, he was instrumental in breaking the deadlock on the candidate, and James A. Garfield won the nomination.
US Senator
After Harrison led the Indiana Republican delegation to the Republican National Convention of 1880, he was regarded as the alleged state candidate for the US Senate. He gave a speech in favor of Garfield in Indiana and New York, further enhancing his profile in the party. However, when Republicans regained a majority in the state legislature, Harrison's election for a six-year term in the US Senate was threatened by Justice Walter Q. Gresham, a party rival, but Harrison was eventually elected. After Garfield's election as president in 1880, his administration offered Harrison cabinet positions, but Harrison refused to support continuing his ministry in the US Senate.
Harrison served in the Senate from March 4, 1881 to March 3, 1887 and presided over the US Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaside (47th Congress) and the US Senate Committee for the Region (48th and 49th Congress).
In 1881, the main problem facing Senator Harrison was the budget surplus. Democrats want to reduce tariffs and limit the amount of money the government takes; Republicans instead want to spend money on internal repairs and retirement for veterans of the Civil War. Harrison took the side of his party and advocated a generous pension for their veterans and widows. He also supported, unsuccessfully, assistance for the education of the South, especially the children of the liberated; he believes that education is needed to help the black population improve political and economic equality with whites. Harrison opposed the Chinese Exception Act of 1882, backed by his party, because he thinks it violates existing agreements with China.
In 1884, Harrison and Gresham competed for influence on the Republican National Convention of 1884; the delegation finally endorsed James G. Blaine, the eventual nomination. In the Senate, Harrison reaches part of the Dependent Pension Bill, only to see it vetoed by President Grover Cleveland. His efforts to continue the recognition of the new western countries were blocked by the Democrats, who fear that the new nations will vote for the Republican Party for Congress.
In 1885, the Democrats dimmed the state legislature of Indiana, which resulted in a rising Democratic majority in 1886, albeit a wholly-majority Republican throughout the state. In 1887, largely as a result of the Democratic conspiracy in Indiana's legislative district, Harrison was defeated in his bid for reelection. After the deadlock in the state senate, the state legislature finally elect Democrat David Turpie as Harrison's successor in the US Senate. Harrison returns to Indianapolis and continues his legal practice, but remains active in national state and politics.
Selection 1888
Nominated
The initial favorite for the Republican nomination was the previous nomination, James G. Blaine of Maine. After Blaine wrote several letters refusing interest in nominations, his supporters were divided among other candidates, with John Sherman of Ohio being the leader among them. Others, including New York's Chauncey Depew, Russell Alger of Michigan, and arch-rival Harrison Walter Q. Gresham, now a federal appeals court judge in Chicago, also sought the support of delegates at the Republican National Convention of 1888. Blaine did not openly supporting one of the candidates as a substitute; However, on March 1, 1888 he personally wrote that "the only person in my judgment can make the best is Benjamin Harrison."
Harrison placed fifth in the first vote, with Sherman leading, and the next few voices showed little change. Blaine's supporters shifted their support among the candidates they considered acceptable, and when they turned to Harrison, they found a candidate who could draw votes from many other delegates. He was nominated as the party's presidential candidate in the eighth vote, with a count of 544 to 108 votes. Levi P. Morton of New York was chosen as his partner.
Selection in Cleveland
Harrison's opponent in the election was President Grover Cleveland. Harrison waged a more traditional front-porch campaign, abandoned by his immediate predecessors; he received a delegation to visit Indianapolis and make more than ninety statements from his hometown. Republicans are campaigning strongly in favor of protective tariffs, turning protectionist voters in important industrial nations in the North. The selection focused on the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and the state of Harrison in the state of Indiana. Harrison and Cleveland divide these four states, with Harrison winning in New York and Indiana. The number of voters was 79.3%, reflecting a great interest in the campaign; nearly eleven million votes were given. Although Harrison received 90,000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland, he brought the Election College 233 to 168. The charges were made against the Republicans for engaging in irregular voting practices; an example is described as Block Five. On October 31, Indiana Sentinel published a letter allegedly written by Harrison's friend and supporter William Wade Dudley to bribe voters in "five blocks" to ensure Harrison's election. Harrison did not defend or reject Dudley, but let him stay in the campaign for the remaining days. After the election Harrison never talked to Dudley again.
Although Harrison has not made any political bargaining, his supporters have given him many promises on his behalf. When Boss Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania, who was rejected for the position of the Cabinet for his political support during the convention, heard that Harrison considers his narrow victory to Providence, Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know "how close a number of people are forced to approach... prison to make it becoming President. "Harrison is known as the Hundred President because of his inauguration celebrating the first centenary of George Washington's inauguration in 1789. In the congressional elections, Republicans increased their membership in the House of Representatives by nineteen seats.
Presidency 1889-1893
Inauguration and cabinet
Harrison was sworn into office on Monday, March 4, 1889 by Supreme Court Justice Melville Fuller. His short, half-hearted speech from his grandfather, William Henry Harrison, whose speech holds the record for the longest inaugural address of a US president. In his speech, Benjamin Harrison appreciated the growth of the nation for the influence of education and religion, urging cotton states and mining areas to reach industrial proportions from the eastern states and promised protective tariffs. Regarding trade, he said, "If our big companies will more closely observe their legal obligations and obligations, they will have fewer calls to complain about the limitations of their rights or disrupt their operations." Harrison also urged the early states for the region and advocated retirement for veterans, a statement greeted with loud applause. In foreign affairs, Harrison reaffirms the Monroe Doctrine as the mainstay of foreign policy, while urging the modernization of the Navy and the merchant maritime power. He gave his commitment to international peace through non-interference in foreign government affairs.
The Marine Corps Band John Philip Sousa played at Ball Inaugural inside the Pension Building with a large crowd present. After moving to the White House, Harrison noted, simply prophesying, "There is only a door - one that is never locked - between the presidential office and what is not very accurately called his private apartment." There should be an executive office building, not too far away, but very different from residential homes For others in the public service there is an empty space between the bedroom and the desk. "
Harrison acted quite independently in choosing his cabinet, much to the dismay of the Republican bosses. He began by postponing the nomination of James G. Blaine as State Minister thus blocking Blaine's involvement in the administration establishment, as has been the case in Garfield President's term. In fact, apart from Blaine, the only Republican boss who was originally nominated was Redfield Proctor, as Secretary of War. Senator Shelby Cullom's comments symbolize Harrison's reluctance to use the federal position as patronage: "I think Harrison treats me as well as he does another Senator, but every time he does something for me, it's so cruel that concessions tend to be more angry than help. Harrison's choice shared certain alliances - such as their service in the Civil War, citizenship and Indiana membership in the Presbyterian Church. However, Harrison with these options has alienated key Republican members from New York to Pennsylvania to Iowa and prematurely compromised his political and future strengths. Harrison's normal schedule is provided for two full cabinet meetings per week, as well as weekly separate meetings one on one with each cabinet member.
In June 1890, James Postmaster General John Wanamaker and some Philadelphia friends bought a new big cottage at Cape May Point for Harrison Caroline's wife. Many believe that the gift of the cottage looked inappropriate and equal to a bribe for the cabinet position. Harrison did not comment on the matter until after two weeks when he said he always intended to buy the cottage once Caroline gave consent. On July 2, maybe a little late to avoid suspicion, Harrison gave Wanamaker a check for $ 10,000 to pay for the cabin.
Public service and retirement reform
Civil service reform is a prominent issue after Harrison's election. Harrison has campaigned as a supporter of the merit system, as opposed to a spoils system. Although some civil servants have been classified under Pendleton Law by the previous government, Harrison spent most of his first months in office deciding on political promises. Congress is widely divided on this issue and Harrison is reluctant to address this issue in the hope of preventing alienation from both sides. The problem became political football at the time and was immortalized in a cartoon called "What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?" Harrison appointed Theodore Roosevelt and Hugh Smith Thompson, both reformers, to the Civil Service Commission, but instead made little further reforms.
Harrison quickly saw the enactment of the Deposit and Disability Act in 1890, a reason he fought for in Congress. In addition to providing pensions to disabled veterans of the Civil War (regardless of the cause of their disability), the Act spends some of the federal budget surplus in trouble. Pension spending reached $ 135 million under Harrison, the largest expenditure of its kind to that point in American history, a problem exacerbated by the interpretive interpretation of retired Retirement Officer James R. Tanner on pension laws. An investigation into the Pension Bureau by Harrison's Home Secretary John Willock Noble found evidence of a lavish and illegal gift under Tanner. Harrison, who personally believed that pointing Tanner was a mistake, because his management style and his apparent tongue, asked Tanner to resign and replace him with Green B. Raum. Raum is also accused of receiving loan payments in return for accelerating retirement cases. Harrison, after receiving an investigative report of the Republican Congress that disagrees that Raum freed him, kept him in office for the rest of his reign.
One of Harrison's first appointments forced to step down was James S. Clarkson as a postmaster assistant. Clarkson, who expects a full cabinet position, begins sabotaging the appointment from the start, earning a reputation for "beheading a fourth grade postmaster every three minutes". Clarkson himself stated, "I am only in the details of the Republican Committee... I am very eager to complete this task and leave." He resigned in September 1890.
Rates
The tariff rates had been a major political issue since before the Civil War, and they became the most dominant in the 1888 election. The high tariff rates created a surplus of money in the Treasury, which caused many Democrats (as well as the growing Populist movement) to ask to lower it. Most Republicans prefer to keep interest rates, spend surpluses for internal improvements and eliminate some internal taxes.
Representatives William McKinley and Senator Nelson W. Aldrich framed the McKinley Tariff that will raise higher tariffs, including making tariffs that are deliberately banned. At the request of Secretary of State James Blaine, Harrison sought to make tariffs more acceptable by urging Congress to add reciprocal provisions, which would allow the president to reduce the rate when other countries reduce their level on American exports. Tariffs are removed from imported raw sugar, and sugar growers in the United States are subsidized two cents per pound for their production. Even with the reduction and reciprocity, McKinley Rates set the highest average rate in American history, and the expenses associated with it contribute to the reputation of the Billion-Dollar Congress.
Antitrust and currency laws
Members of both sides are concerned about the growth of trust and monopoly power, and one of the first actions of the 51st Congress is to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act, sponsored by Senator John Sherman of Ohio. The law was passed by a wide margin in both houses, and Harrison signed it into law. The Sherman Act is the first Federal action of its kind, and marks the new use of federal government powers. While Harrison approves the law and its intent, his government is not very strong in upholding it. However, the government successfully resolved the case during Harrison's time in office (against Tennessee coal company), and has started several other cases against the trust.
One of the most tumultuous questions of the 1880s was whether the currency should be supported by gold and silver, or just gold. This issue crosses party lines, with Western Republic and South Democrats joining together in calls for free silver coins, and representatives of both sides in the Northeast holding firm to the gold standard. Because silver is worth less than the equivalent of gold, taxpayers pay their government bills in silver, while international creditors demand payment in gold, resulting in depletion of the nation's gold stock. Due to worldwide deflation at the end of the 19th century, however, strict gold standards have resulted in a reduction of income without equal reduction in debt, encouraging debtors and the poor to request silver coins as a measure of inflation.
The problem of silver coins has not been much discussed in the 1888 campaign and Harrison is said to have liked the bimetal position. However, the appointment of Silver Finance Secretary, William Windom, encourages free silver proponents. Harrison tries to steer the middle ground between two positions, advocating free silver currency, but on its own value, not on a fixed ratio to gold. It failed to facilitate a compromise between factions. In July 1890, Senator Sherman reached part of the bill, the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, in both homes. Harrison thought that the bill would end the controversy, and he signed it into law. The effect of the bill, however, is an increase in the depletion of the nation's gold supply, a problem that will last until the second Cleveland government finishes it.
Civil rights
After regaining a majority in both Houses of Congress, some Republicans, led by Harrison, seek to pass legislation to protect the civil rights of black Americans. Harrison Attorney General William H. H. Miller, through the Department of Justice, ordered prosecutions for violations of the voting right in the South; However, the white jury often fails to punish or indict violators. This prompted Harrison to urge Congress to pass legislation that would "secure all our people freedom of suffrage and other civil rights under the Constitution and legislation." Harrison supports the proposed Federal Proposed Bill written by Representative Henry Cabot Lodge and Sen. George Frisbie Hoar in 1890, but the bill was defeated in the Senate. After the failure to pass the bill, Harrison continues to speak in favor of African American civil rights in a speech to Congress. Most notably, on 3 December 1889, Harrison left before the Congress and declared:
Colored people do not bother themselves; they are brought here with chains and held in a society where they are now bound by a cruel slave code... when and under what conditions did blacks have free voicemails? When did he actually have full civil rights that he had been in for so long? When is the quality of influence intended by our form of government to secure voters to be restored?... in many parts of our country where the large colored population of people of that race is by various devices deprived of the effective exercise of their political rights and of their many civil rights. The wrong does not spend on people whose voices are suppressed. Every constituency in the Union is harmed.
He strongly questioned the civil rights record of states, arguing that if the state had authority over civil rights, then "we have the right to ask if they are working on it." Harrison also supports a bill proposed by Senator Henry W. Blair, who will provide federal funds to schools regardless of student race. He also endorsed the proposed constitutional amendment to overturn the Supreme Court's decision in the Civil Rights Case (1883) which stated many of the 1875 Civil Rights Act were unconstitutional. None of these steps obtained congressional approval.
National forest
In March 1891 the Congress was passed and Harrison signed the Land Revolutionary Law of 1891. These legislation resulted from a bipartisan desire to initiate reclamation of surplus land that has been, to that point, awarded from the public domain, for potential completion or use by railways syndicate. When the draft law was completed, Section 24 was added by Harrison's order by Interior Minister John Noble, which reads as follows:
That the President of the United States may, from time to time, establish separately and reserve, in any State or Territory which owns public land carrying forests, in any part of the public land which is wholly or partly covered with timber or scrub, is it commercial value or not, as a public order, and the president shall, through public statements, declare the establishment of such reservations and their limits.
Within a month of enacting this law, Harrison granted permission for the first forest reserve, located in the public domain adjacent to Yellowstone Park, in Wyoming. Another area designated by Harrison, brought the first total forest reservation to 22 million acres in his tenure. Harrison was also the first to provide the prehistoric Indian Ruins, Casa Grande in Arizona, federal protection.
Native American Policy
During the Harrison reign, the Lakota Sioux, previously restricted to reservations in South Dakota, grew uneasy under the influence of Wovoka, a drug man, who encouraged them to participate in a spiritual movement called Ghari Dance. Many people in Washington do not understand the religious nature of the Dance Ghost, and think it is a militant movement used to rally Native Americans against the government. On December 29, 1890, troops from the Seventh Cavalry clashed with Sioux in Wounded Knee. The members of the 7th Cavalry have come to confiscate Sioux firearms "for their own safety and protection". The massacre began after most of the Sioux peacefully handed over their firearms. The cavalry started shooting and managed to wipe out the entire camp. The result was the slaughter of at least 200 of the 297 Sioux, including many women and children; die Sioux is buried in a mass grave. Harrison's reaction directed Major General Nelson A. Miles to investigate and order 3500 federal troops to South Dakota; rebellion terminated. Luka Luka is considered the last American Indian battle in the 19th century. Harrison's general policy of American Indians is to encourage assimilation into white society and, regardless of the massacre, he believes the policy is generally successful. This policy, known as the system of appropriation and embodied in the Dawes Act, was favored by liberal reformers at the time, but ultimately proved to be detrimental to American Indians because they sold most of their land at low prices to white speculators.
During the reign of Harrison, the United States continued to advance in science and technology. Harrison is the earliest president whose voice is known to be preserved. The span of thirty-six seconds was originally made on a wax phonograph cylinder in 1889 by Gianni Bettini. Harrison also has electricity installed in the White House for the first time by Edison General Electric Company, but he and his wife will not touch the light switch for fear of electric shock and will often sleep with the lights on.
During his reign, Harrison deployed state technology to clothing the nation with a credible sea power. When he took office, there were only two warships assigned to the Navy. In his inaugural address, he said, "the construction of a sufficient number of warships and the necessary weapons they need to develop as quickly as consistent with care and perfection." Harrison Naval Secretary Benjamin F. Tracy pioneered the rapid development of the ship, and within a year of congressional approval was obtained to build an Indiana , Texas , Oregon i> and Columbia . In 1898, with the help of Carnegie Corporation, no fewer than ten modern warships, including steel hulls and larger displacements and weapons, had turned the United States into a legitimate naval force. Seven of these have started during Harrison's time.
Foreign policy
Latin America and Samoa
Harrison and Secretary of State Blaine are often not close friends, but harmonized in aggressive foreign policy and commercial reciprocity with other countries. Blaine's persistent medical problems demanded more than a direct effort by Harrison in the implementation of foreign policy. In San Francisco, during a US tour in 1891, Harrison stated that the United States was in a "new age" of commerce and that the expanding navy would protect oceanic voyages and increase the influence and prestige of Americans abroad. The First International Conference of American States met in Washington in 1889; Harrison set an aggressive agenda including customs and currency integration and named a bipartisan delegation to the conference, led by John B. Henderson and Andrew Carnegie. The conference failed to achieve a diplomatic breakthrough, largely because of the atmosphere of suspicion nurtured by the Argentine delegation. It managed to build an information center that became a Pan American Union. In response to the diplomatic statue, Harrison and Blaine rotated diplomatically and initiated a crusade for reciprocal tariffs with Latin American countries; The Harrison Government concludes eight reciprocal agreements among these countries. On the other front, Harrison sent Frederick Douglass as ambassador to Haiti, but failed in his attempt to set up a naval base there.
In 1889, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the German Empire were locked in a control of the Samoan Islands. Historical research George H. Ryden suggests Harrison plays a key role in determining this Pacific post status by taking a firm stand on every aspect of negotiating the Samoa conference; this includes the elections of local authorities, refusal to allow compensation for Germany, as well as the establishment of three protectorate powers, the first for the United States. This arrangement facilitates the US dominant power in the Pacific; Blaine State Secretary was not present due to complications of back pain.
European embargo for pigs
Throughout the 1880s various European countries had imposed a ban on imports of US pigs from unconfirmed problems of trichinosis; the problem is over a billion pounds of pork products worth $ 80 million (every year). Harrison involves Whitelaw Reid, minister to France, and William Walter Phelps, minister to Germany, to restore this exports to the country without delay. Harrison also managed to ask the congress to enact the Meat Inspection Act to eliminate allegations of product compromise. The President also partnered with the Minister of Agriculture Rusk to threaten Germany with retaliation - by initiating a US embargo on beet sugar highly demanded by Germany. In September 1891 Germany succumbed, and soon followed by Denmark, France and Austria-Hungary.
Crisis in the Aleutian Islands and Chile
Harrison's first international crisis arose from disputed fishing rights on the Alaskan coast. Canada claims fishing and sealing rights around many Aleutian Islands, violating US law. As a result, the United States Navy seized several Canadian vessels. In 1891, the government began negotiations with Britain which would ultimately lead to a compromise on fishing rights after international arbitration, with the British government paying compensation in 1898.
In 1891, a diplomatic crisis emerged in Chile, otherwise known as Baltimore's Crisis. The American Minister to Chile, Patrick Egan, granted asylum to Chileans seeking refuge during the Chilean Civil War of 1891. Egan, previously a militant Irish immigrant to the United States, was motivated by his personal desire to thwart the influence of Great Britain in Chile; his actions increased the tension between Chile and the United States, which began in the early 1880s when Blaine's Secretary had alienated Chileans in the Pacific War.
The crisis began in earnest when sailors from the USS Baltimore took a beach vacation in Valparaiso and a fight ensued, resulting in the deaths of two American sailors and the capture of three dozen others. The Baltimore's captain, Winfield Schley, based on the nature of the sailors wound, insisted the sailors had been bayonet-attacked by Chilean police without provocation. With Blaine paralyzed, Harrison devised a request for reparations. Chilean Foreign Minister Manuel Matta replied that Harrison's message was "mistaken or intentionally wrong," and said that the Chilean government treated the matter as much as any other criminal matter.
Tension rises to the brink of war - Harrison threatens to sever diplomatic ties unless the United States receives an appropriate apology, and says the necessary situation, "serious and patriotic consideration". The president also commented, "If the dignity and prestige and influence of the United States are not completely sacrificed, we must protect those in foreign ports displaying flags or wearing colors." The Navy is also placed at a high level of readiness. A restored Blaine made a conciliatory offer to the Chilean government that had no support in government; He then turned around, joining the choir for concessions and an unconditional apology by the Chilean, who was ultimately obliged, and war avoided. Theodore Roosevelt then praised Harrison for his use of the "big stick" on this issue.
Hawaiian Annexation
In the last days of his reign, Harrison dealt with Hawaiian annexation issues. After the coup against Queen Liliuokalani, the new Hawaiian government led by Sanford Dole filed a petition for annexation by the United States. Harrison was interested in expanding American influence on Hawaii and setting up a naval base in Pearl Harbor but had previously not expressed an opinion about the annexation of the islands. US Consul in Hawaii John L. Stevens recognized the new government on 1 February 1893 and forwarded their proposal to Washington. With only one month left before leaving office, the government signed an agreement on February 14 and handed it to the Senate the next day with Harrison's recommendation. The Senate failed to act, and President Cleveland withdrew the treaty shortly after taking office.
Cabinet
Legal promise
Harrison appointed four Supreme Court justices to the United States Supreme Court. The first is David Josiah Brewer, a judge in the Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit. Brewer, Justice Field's nephew, had previously been considered for cabinet positions. Shortly after Brewer's nomination, Justice Matthews died, created another vacancy. Harrison has considered Henry Billings Brown, a Michigan judge and maritime law expert, for the first vacancy and now nominates for the second. For the third vacancy, which appeared in 1892, Harrison nominated George Shiras. Shiras's appointment is somewhat controversial because of his age - sixty - older than usual for the newly appointed Judge. Shiras also withdrew Senator Matthew Quay's opposition from Pennsylvania because they are in a different faction of the Republican Party of Pennsylvania, but his candidacy is still approved. Finally, at the end of his tenure, Harrison nominated Howell Edmunds Jackson to replace Judge Lamar, who died in January 1893. Harrison knew the next senate would be controlled by the Democrats, so he chose Jackson, a respected Democratic Democrat with whom he was friendly to ensure the candidate will not be rejected. Jackson's candidacy did work, but he died after only two years in the Court.
In addition to the appointment of the Supreme Court, Harrison appointed ten judges to the appeals court, two judges to the circuit court, and 26 judges to the district court.
Country accepted in Union
Six new states were accepted in the Union while Harrison was in office:
- North DakotaÃ, - 2 November 1889
- South DakotaÃ, - November 2, 1889
- Montana - November 8, 1889
- WashingtonÃ, - November 11, 1889
- Idaho, - July 3, 1890
- Wyoming - July 10, 1890
More countries were accepted during Harrison's presidency than others.
Holidays and trips
Harrison attended the three-day celebration of the three-day inauguration of George Washington in New York City on April 30, 1889, and made the following statement: "We have come to Washington in a serious yet inspiring presence He is an incarnation of duty and he teaches us today this is great: that those who will associate their names with events that will live a century longer can only do so with high consecration to the task.
The Harrison family made many trips out of the capital, including the most stopping speeches - including Philadelphia, New England, Indianapolis and Chicago. The president usually makes his best impression in public speaking, as opposed to a more intimate setting. The most important part of his presidential journey, until then unequaled, was a five-week tour of the west in the spring of 1891, taking on a luxurious train. Harrison enjoys a number of short trips outside the capital - usually for hunting - to Virginia or nearby Maryland.
During the hot Washington summers, the Harrison family took refuge in Deer Park, Maryland and Cape May Point, New Jersey. In 1890, John Wanamaker joined the other Harrison worshipers from Philadelphia and gifted them a summer cottage in Cape May. Harrison, though appreciative, was uncomfortable with inappropriate appearances; a month later, he paid Wanamaker $ 10,000 in exchange for the donors. Nevertheless, Harrison's opponents made the prize a mockery of the nation, and Mrs. Harrison and the president were heavily criticized.
Campaign reelection in 1892
The surplus of the treasury has evaporated and the nation's economic health has deteriorated - a precursor to Panic late in 1893. The election of Congress in 1890 has been against the Republic; and although Harrison has worked closely with the Republican Congress on legislation, some party leaders withdrew their support for him because of his firm rejection to give his members a member who nods in the course of his executive promise. In particular, Thomas C. Platt, Matthew S. Quay, Thomas B. Reed and James Clarkson secretly organized the Grievance Committee, which was ambitious to launch a dump-Harrison attack. They asked for Blaine's support, with no effect whatsoever, and Harrison in reaction decided to run for re-election - apparently forced to choose one of two options - "being a candidate or forever using the name of political coward".
It is clear that Harrison will not be re-nominated unanimously. Many critics of Harris continued to urge to encourage the inadequate Blaine, although he announced that he was not a candidate in February 1892. Some party leaders still hoped to include Blaine into the run, and speculation increased when he resigned at 11 o'clock as Minister for Foreign Affairs. in the month of June. At a convention in Minneapolis, Harrison won the first vote, but faced significant opposition.
The Democrats nominate the former President of Cleveland, making the election in 1892 a rematch of the previous four years. The revision of tariffs over the past four years has made imported goods so expensive that now many voters are turning to reform positions. Many Westerners, traditionally Republican voters, defected to candidates for the new Populist Party, James Weaver, who promised free silver, generous veteran retirement, and eight-hour workdays. The effects of the Strike Homestead suppression rebound against the Republic as well, though the federal government does not take action.
Harrison's wife Caroline started a critical struggle with tuberculosis in early 1892, and two weeks before the election, on October 25, she took her life. Their daughter, Mary Harrison McKee, took on the role of First Lady after her mother's death. Harrison's Pain Disease and the fact that both candidates have served in the White House are calling for a low-key campaign, and result in both candidates not actively campaigning personally.
Cleveland eventually won elections by 277 electoral votes to Harrison 145, and also won popular votes by 5,556,918 to 5,176,108; this is the most decisive presidential election in 20 years. This gives Harrison the distinction of being the only president whose predecessor and successor are the same person.
Post-presidency and death
After he left the office, Harrison visited the Columbia World Exposition in Chicago in June 1893. After the Expo, Harrison returned to his home in Indianapolis. Harrison was elected a companion of the Loyal Order of the United States Legion of the United States in 1882, and was elected commander (president) of Ohio Commandery on May 3, 1893. For several months in 1894, Harrison lived in San Francisco, California, where he gave law lectures at Stanford University. In 1896, some Republican Republican friends tried to convince him to seek another president, but he refused. He toured the country making appearances and speeches to support William McKinley's candidacy for the presidency.
From July 1895 to March 1901 Harrison served on the Board of Trustees of Purdue University, where Harrison Hall, the dormitory, was named in his honor. He wrote a series of articles on the federal government and the presidency that were reissued in 1897 as a book titled Our Country This . In 1896, Harrison at the age of 62 remarried, to Mary Scott Lord Dimmick, 37-year-old widow and former secretary to his dead wife. Two adult children Harrison, Russell, 41 years old at the time, and Mary (Mamie) McKee, 38, did not approve of marriage and did not attend the wedding. Benjamin and Mary have one child together, Elizabeth (February 21, 1897 - December 26, 1955).
In 1898, Harrison served as a lawyer for the Venezuelan Republic in their Guyana border dispute with Britain. An international experiment has been approved; he filed a 800-page report and traveled to Paris where he spent more than 25 hours in court on behalf of Venezuela. Although he lost the case, his legal argument made him famous internationally. In 1899 Harrison attended the First Peace Conference in The Hague.
Harrison is an active Presbyterian and serves as Elder at the First Presbyterian Church in Indianapolis and on a special committee on revision of beliefs in the national Presbyterian General Assembly. However, he died before he could cast his vote at the meeting.
Harrison developed what was considered influenza (later referred to as grippe) in February 1901. He was treated by inhaling steam and oxygen vapors, but his condition worsened. He died of pneumonia at his home in Indianapolis on Wednesday, March 13, 1901, at the age of 67. Harrison's body was buried in Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis, along with the remains of his first wife, Caroline. After his death in 1948, Mary Dimmick Harrison, his second wife, was buried beside him.
Reputation and historical memories
According to historian R. Hal Williams, Harrison has "a broad reputation for personal and official integrity". Considered strictly by the Democrats, Harrison's reputation remains largely intact when he leaves the White House. Having the advantage of some 19th-century presidents, Harrison himself, the Republic, controls Congress, while his government is actively developing Republic programs with higher tariffs, moderate control over the company, protecting the African American voting rights, cheap Civil War pensions careful, and compromise on the issue of controversial silver. Historians do not raise "serious questions about Harrison's own integrity or the integrity of his government."
After Panic of 1893, Harrison became more popular in retirement. Inheritance among historians is lacking, and "the general accounts of that period do not accurately treat Harrison as a password". Recently,
historians have recognized the importance of the Harrison government - and Harrison himself - in the new foreign policy of the late nineteenth century. The government faces challenges throughout the hemisphere, in the Pacific, and in relation to European powers, involvement will be taken for granted in the 21st century.
The Harrison presidency was part of the 19th century, but he "clearly pointed the way" to the modern presidency that would emerge under William McKinley. The Sherman bi-partisan anti-faith law signed into law by Harrison remained in force for another 120 years and is the most important legislation passed by the First Fifty Congress. Harrison's support for African American voting and education will be the last significant effort to protect civil rights until the 1930s. Harrison's resilience to foreign policy was imitated by politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt.
Harrison is immortalized in several stamps. The first was a 13-cent stamp issued on November 18, 1902, with an engraved image of Harrison modeled after the photo given by his widow. In all Harrison has been honored on six US Post seals, more than most of the other US Presidents. Harrison was also featured on the National Dollar Notes five dollars from the third charter period, beginning in 1902. In 2012, a dollar coin with his drawing, part of the $ 1 President Coins Program, was issued.
In 1908, the Indianapolis people set up a memorial statue of Benjamin Harrison, made by Charles Niehaus and Henry Bacon, in honor of Harrison's lifelong achievements as military leader, US Senator, and President of the United States. This statue occupies a site on the southern edge of University Park, overlooking the Federal Building Birch Bayh and the United States Courthouse on New York Avenue.
In 1942, a Liberty Ship, SS Benjamin Harrison , was named to honor him. In 1951, the Harrison house was opened to the public as a library and museum. It has been used as a hostel for music schools from 1937 to 1950. The house was designated as the National Historic Landmark in 1964.
Theodore Roosevelt presents Fort Benjamin Harrison in honor of the former president in 1906. The city is located in Lawrence, Indiana, northeastern suburb of Indianapolis. The federal government closed Fort Harrison in 1991 and transferred 1,700 from 2,500 acres to the state government of Indiana in 1995 to establish Fort Harrison State Park. The site has been redeveloped to include a residential neighborhood and a golf course.
See also
- List of Presidents of the United States
- List of Presidents of the United States, can be sorted by previous experience
Note
References
Source
Further reading
External links
Official
- The site of President Benjamin Harrison
- White House Biography
Liputan media
- "Benjamin Harrison mengumpulkan berita dan komentar". The New York Times .
More
- United States Congress. "Benjamin Harrison (id: H000263)". Directory of Biographies of the United States Congress .
- Benjamin Harrison: Resource Guide, Library of Congress
- Benjamin & amp; Caroline Scott Harrison Collection, Miami University Library
- Benjamin Harrison Collection, 1853-1943, at Indiana Historical Society
- Essay on Harrison and every member of his cabinet and First Lady, Miller Center of Public Affairs
- "Life of the Portrait of Benjamin Harrison", from C-SPAN American President: Portrait of Life , August 20, 1999
- Record of 1889 Harrison's speech - Vincent's Voice Library, Michigan State University
- Collection of Private Letters & amp; Benjamin Harrison Manuscript
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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